Alcoholic Beverages in Ancient India: Production, Consumption, Trade and Regulation

Abstract

Alcoholic beverages were integral to the economic, social and cultural life of ancient India. This article argues that alcohol was not merely a recreational substance but a significant product, produced using specialised methods, organised production, and systems of social and administrative regulation. Using a historical, philological, and comparative approach, the study examines the Arthasastra, Manusmriti, Kamasutra, Caraka-samhita, Susruta-samhita, and Buddhist and Jain texts. Particular attention is given to terms such as sura, madya, asava, arista, maireya, and madhu, their meanings in different textual contexts, and the ingredients and methods used in preparing various beverages, including grains, rice, sugarcane products, fruits, flowers, honey, spices, and fermenting agents such as surabija. The Arthasastra provides especially valuable evidence of the organisation of liquor production, storage, distribution, sale, taxation, and regulation under the Suradhyaksha (Superintendent of Liquor), demonstrating the economic and administrative significance of alcohol. Other sources reveal its uses in household and cultural practices, while also reflecting differing moral and religious attitudes towards drinking. Taken together, the study demonstrates that alcohol occupied a complex and multidimensional position in ancient India. It was also a product of technological knowledge, a traded commodity, a source of state revenue, and a subject of moral and administrative regulation. It therefore provides valuable insight into how production, the economy, social practice, and state authority were interconnected in ancient Indian society.